This paper describes a programme of archaeological monitoring and excavation at St Mary’s Lane Kilkenny City. The monitoring was necessitated due to the laying of a Bord Gaís Eireann pipeline extension in May 2003. St Mary’s Lane is a narrow street feature which skirts the southern, western and northern sides of the boundary wall of St Mary’s Church.

The programme of monitoring revealed the remains of in situ human burials likely to be associated with St Mary’s Church which is located immediately to the south of the portion of lane-way examined. The pipe laying operation was temporarily halted and archaeological excavations commenced. Some twelve skeletons were identified and excavated under licence to the Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government (licence 03E572). This work was carried out by the writer for Margaret Gowen and Co. Ltd. on behalf of Bord Gaís Eireann

Historical and Archaeological background
The medieval town of Kilkenny consisted of three distinct elements. The northern portion of the walled town was known as Irishtown. This settlement developed around a monastic centre dedicated to St Canice. The primary element developed by the Anglo-Normans extended to the north from the Castle. This Anglo-Norman settlement, located between the Castle and Irishtown became known as Hightown. A later medieval suburb, that of St Johns, developed across the Nore.

St Mary’s Church, located to the east of High Street and occupying a low rise overlooking the river, was the parish church for Hightown. High Street was the principal street of the medieval town, while subsidiary streets, such as Kieran Street, ran parallel to it or at right-angles to it. High Street also acted as the market place for the medieval settlement

The first reference for St Mary’s Church dates from c.1205, when the Bishop of Ossory held an ecclesiastical court there (Bradley 2000, 3). The cemetery is featured on all of the cartographic depictions of the Church. A historical reference to a cemetery at St Mary’s Church dates from 1337 (Liber Primus, 6).

Throughout the medieval period, the local corporation maintained the Church, and an annual contribution of 4d was collected from each house and 1s.2d. from each shop or stall for this purpose. The church was evidently large enough for it to be used as the venue of meeting of the local courts (Bradley 2000). The wealthiest burgesses were allowed rights of burial within the church. The remainder of the population was interred in the surrounding churchyard. The modern day churchyard contains a fine collection of early grave slabs.

The church building underwent modification throughout the medieval period. Renovations in 1739 incorporated much of the medieval fabric. The chancel was demolished in 1748 and the bell tower was repaired in 1774. This tower was later replaced in 1819-20 by a tower at the west end. The church closed to worship in 1957 and has been used as a parish hall since 1963 (ibid.).

The analysis of historic maps is generally quite useful in determining how parts of the streetscape of Kilkenny developed¹. The earliest map of use in relation to St Mary’s Lane is that of John Rocque who drew his Plan of Kilkenny in 1758. St Mary’s Lane is clearly visible on Rocque’s representation of the Kilkenny. It appears as a street feature, approximately 6m wide, running on the same line as the present laneway, with two separate rows of steps leading down to what is termed Back Lane (present day Kieran St). A narrow boundary wall separates the Lane from the churchyard, where today St Mary’s Almshouse stands. A row of properties marks the northern side of the alley. There appears to have been little change in the shape of the churchyard between the eighteenth century and modern times.

The first edition Ordnance Survey map of c.1841 is more detailed than the previous maps of the site. It shows many developments since Rocque’s map. St Mary’s Almshouse is shown to the north of the churchyard. The almshouse appears to have been constructed in the late-eighteenth to mid-nineteenth centuries. Comparison of Rocque’s map with the first Ordnance Survey map of 1841 shows that the portion of the Lane on to which the Almshouses front was widened following their construction. This would indicate that some or all of the Lane in this area may have been church property. The properties marking the northern side of St Mary’s Lane seem to be the same as those on the eighteenth-century maps. The two sets of steps that seem to lead from St Mary’s Lane to Kieran Street appear to be those depicted by Rocque. The Tholsel (modern day City Hall), which fronts on to High Street, is much larger than in the earlier maps, showing considerable re-building, the rear of which is built back into St Mary’s Lane. It is probable that this re-building necessitated an alteration to the northwestern corner of the churchyard. The lack of skeletal material in this area of pipeline trench opened during 2003 may be related to the development and expansion of the Tholsel building during the nineteenth century.

Previous Archaeological excavation in St Mary’s Lane
During the laying of pipes in St Mary’s Lane in 2000 human skeletal remains were identified. These burials were exposed outside the south-western boundary wall of St Mary’s graveyard. During this phase of work some 49 skeletons were identified by Ken Hanley (2002).

Some 44 individuals were identified by examination of the exposed section faces within the pipe trench. The skeletons had been buried in what are referred to as ‘natural gravel deposits’. A possible boundary ditch was identified at the southern end of St Mary’s Lane, outside the southern angle or corner of the existing boundary wall.

Some five skeletons were identified during ground works to the north-west of the Lane. These skeletons were present in a deposit referred to by Hanley as Context 24. This deposit consisted of a ‘thick deposit of stony, mid-brown, clayey sand’. Examination of this stretch of the Lane also revealed a damaged medieval graveslab. Part of a cobbled street surface was also recorded at a depth of between 52.53mOD – 52.40mOD. This surface was exposed directly opposite the existing entrance to the graveyard. At that location the cobbled surface overlay deposit C24.

Overall Hanley felt that the cobbled surface was likely to date to the sixteenth century. On the basis of pottery associations the excavator felt that the main phase of burial dated to the thirteenth to fourteenth centuries (ibid.).

There is also anecdotal evidence of the discovery of skeletons during the 1960s in the basement of a High Street property. This property is located close to the entrance into St Mary’s Lane from High Street.

Excavations at St Mary’s Lane 2003
The excavations of St Mary’s Lane followed the line of a pipeline extension. The aim of this pipe extension was to join a gas main immediately behind the Tholsel to the rear of a new commercial development fronting onto Kieran Street. This pipeline extension had a length of approximately 45m in total. The pipe trench ran approximately two-thirds the way down St Mary’s Lane towards Kieran Street, for a length of approximately 30m in an east-west direction. The trench then changed direction to run in a northeast – southwest direction for a length of 15m. This latter stretch took it around the back of City Hall.

The nature of the pipe laying process allowed a trench with a maximum width of 0.75m to be excavated. Such a narrow opening with very little exposure of deposits, made the identification of grave cuts tenuous at best. All but two of the skeletons were completely excavated as they were partially within the sides of the trench. The presence of adjacent buildings and pedestrian traffic prevented the expansion of the trench.

Modern ground level in St Mary’s Lane is at 52.26mOD at the eastern end of the Lane and at 52.70mOD at the western end. The phasing suggested below is partly determined on stratigraphic grounds, by associations of burials with other burials, and by pottery dating.

PHASE I:
Phase Ia
Burial 9 and Burial 13
The earliest archaeology recorded in St Mary’s Lane is represented by two partially excavated skeletons. Of these, B9 was excavated as it was within the pipe laying area, and consisted of a complete skull, and lay in the westernmost portion of the pipe trench. The other, B13, was in the easternmost part of the trench and was considered below the depth of construction. No cuts were recorded for these burials due to their depth, but they are considered to be the earliest inhumations on the site.

The deposit covering Burials 9 and 13, C11, was a loosely compacted, mid brown sandy clay with inclusions of sub rounded stones. This layer which extended throughout the eastern part of the trench, measured some 8.50m E/W and had a depth of 0.20 – 0.30m. No dating material was recovered from this deposit.

Phase Ib
Burial 1, Burial 2 and Burial 6 with associated cuts
Deposit C11 was cut by three burials with associated grave cuts. Of these cut C5 (cut for Burial 1) and C12 (cut for Burial 2) are definite. Both cuts were roughly oval in plan with irregular sides and flat bases. Grave cut C23 (cut for Burial 6) was less distinct, with only its eastern edge visible

Grave cut C5 contained the supine and extended remains of Burial 1. Grave cut C12, immediately to the west of C5, contained the remains of Burial 2, a supine inhumation in a crouched position with its knees drawn to the left. Grave cut C23 contained the supine remains of Burial 6. Immediately to the west of Burial 6, was a set of leg bones. This was recorded as Burial 7 and it crossed the excavation trench at a right angle. Accordingly it is indicative of a north – south burial orientation with the head placed to the north.

Deposit C4, the fill of grave cuts C5, C12 and C23, was light brown-grey clayey silt with regular patches of thick yellow clay and occasional charcoal flecking. This deposit was present throughout the eastern portion of the trench, it undulated in the exposed section faces and had a depth of 0.10 – 0.15m. Deposit C4 acted as the fill of grave cuts C5, C12 and C23, but also appears to have comprised a general graveyard soil. Sherds of Kilkenny-type and Redcliffe pottery, both of which date from the medieval period, were recovered from this layer.

A less than definite cut, C22, which possibly represents a grave cut associated with Burial 3, Burial 4 and Burial 5, was present. This cut was oval in plan with regular sloping sides and a flat bottom. It was 2.70m E/W in length. Burials 3 and 4, which appear to be juveniles, lay supine. Both burials appear to be contemporary as Burial 3 partially overlay Burial 4, without disturbing it. A large stone immediately to the west of the skull of Burial 3 seems to represent a marker delineating the western end of the grave. Alternatively this may represent a crude form of pillow.

Burial 5 was exposed immediately to the west of Burials 3 and 4. This inhumation, Burial 5, represented the remains of an adult, lying supine. As the crossed feet of this individual rested on the stone immediately behind the head of Burial 3, it can be suggested that very little time separated the placing of Burials 3, 4, and 5 into the ground. Layer C21 covered the latter three burials. C21 filled the grave cut C22 and comprised a distinct, red stained gravelly-sandy clay, with high levels of rounded and sub-rounded pebbles. No finds were associated with this material.

Phase Ic
Burial 10, Burial 11 and Burial 12
A separate cluster of inhumations within Phase I was uncovered at the western end of the trench. Burial 11 and Burial 12 were placed on top of Phase Ia Burial 9 and accordingly must be later in date.

Burial 10 was a supine extended burial with its head, unusually, to the east. The nearby inhumation Burial 11 was an extended supine burial with the head to the west. A third adjacent skeleton, Burial 12, was also an extended supine burial with the head to the west.

The nature of the positioning of Burial 10, Burial 11 and Burial 12 suggests that they were placed at the same time or with very little interval. The reason for this assertion is that Burial 10 was immediately under both Burial 11 and Burial 12. Furthermore Burial 11 overlay Burial 10, but underlay Burial 12. No cut was visible for these burials. It is possible that the badly disturbed remains of Burial 8, was associated with this phase. Deposit C4 sealed Burial 10, Burial 11 and Burial 12,

Phase II: Seventeenth/ Eighteenth Centuries.
The grave yard soil C4 was sealed by deposit C3. This layer consisted of a thick black compacted sandy, silty clay, with high levels of rounded and sub-rounded stones. This material had a depth of 0.09m and 0.26m and was present for the eastern portion of the pipeline trench. Layer C3 contained clay tobacco pipe fragments dating from mid-seventeenth to mid-eighteenth centuries, as well as a sherd of eighteenth-century earthenware. This layer may represent the accumulation of material in the Lane during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Phase III: Nineteenth/ Twentieth centuries.
The easternmost 5m of the excavation revealed a thick deposit of mid-brown sandy clay with quantities of red-brick, slate, mortar and late nineteenth-century glass. This deposit, C24, contained one sherd of seventeenth-century North Devon Gravel Tempered Ware. This sherd, which dates from the seventeenth century, is likely to be residual.

Deposit C24 probably represents the deliberate backfilling of a cellar associated with one of the buildings on the north side of St Mary’s Lane.

The westernmost part of the pipe-trench, i.e. the portion directly behind City Hall, was crossed repeatedly by twentieth century services (gas and water), which resulted in significant disturbance to the underlying deposits. No archaeological deposits were detected in this area. Excavation ceased at a depth of 52.005mOD at this part of the laneway.

Burial 2
Slightly crouched east-west inhumation. ?Adult. Supine with head at west facing upwards. Left arm folded across abdomen, right humerus at side, lower arm bones drawn up under chin. Legs flexed.
Skull 51.79mOD Associated with grave cut C12, fill C4

Burial 3
East-west inhumation. Juvenile. Supine with head at west leaning to north. Arms folded across abdomen. Legs run at angle to abdomen. Head resting against cluster of stones.
Skull 51.86

Burial 4
East-west inhumation. Juvenile. Supine with head at west leaning to south, resting on right shoulder. Arms bent at elbow, crossing abdomen Legs extended. Partially underlying Burial 3.
Skull 51.83

Burial 5
East-west inhumation. Adult. Supine with head at west facing upwards. Right arm extended to side, bent at elbow to cross abdomen. Legs extended, crossing at feet. Feet resting on top of stone cluster beside cranium of Burial 3. Left-hand side of burial extended into northern baulk.
Skull 51.91mOD

Burial 6
East-west inhumation. Adult. Supine with head at west leaning north. Right arm extended to side, bent across ribs. Left arm in baulk. Legs extended.
Skull 52.09mOD Associated with grave cut C23

Burial 7
North-south inhumation. Supine with only legs present in trench.
Knee 52.10mOD

Burial 8
Disturbed inhumation. Upper right femur, portion of pelvis and sacrum present. One vertebra present with portion of radius and ulna.
Pelvis 52.12mOD

Burial 9
East-west inhumation. ?Adult. Supine. Only head partially exposed, not excavated.
Skull 52.17mOD

Burial 10
East-west inhumation. Adult. Supine with head at east end of grave leaning to north. Left arm extended out from body. Right arm extended out, running into northern baulk. Legs extended with slight bending at knee. Feet together.
Skull 52.44mOD Under Burial 11 and Burial 12

Burial 11
East-west inhumation. Adult. Supine with head at west end of grave leaning to south. Left arm extended, bent at elbow across pelvis. Legs extended.
Skull 52.42 Over Burial 10

Burial 12
East-west inhumation. Adult. Supine with head at west end of grave leaning to south. Right arm extended, bent at elbow across pelvis. Legs appear to be extended.
Skull 52.44mOD Over Burial 10

Burial 13
Unexcavated skull located at east of trench.
Skull 51.585m

Discussion
The human remains recovered in St Mary’s Lane have clearly revealed the value of monitoring small scale pipelines which run through sensitive urban areas. The remains of the inhabitants of medieval Kilkenny, which were recovered in the excavations, were most likely to have been associated with the burial ground surrounding St Mary’s Church. This church is first mentioned in the historical sources c.1205 and it may have been founded during the late twelfth century. This church is located in the element of the town which developed in the shadow of Kilkenny Castle and the dedication of the church to Mary is in keeping with Anglo-Norman foundations of the late twelfth and early thirteenth century.

What is presently St Mary’s Lane was once likely to have been a part of the medieval cemetery associated with the church. On the basis of the ceramic evidence, notably the presence of sherds of thirteenth-century imported wares stratified with local pottery, this cemetery can be assigned to the thirteenth to fourteenth centuries. The position of St Mary’s Lane, as a street feature, marked on Jean Rocque’s map of 1758 clearly indicates that it ceased to be used as a cemetery sometime between the fourteenth century and the eighteenth century

The findings of the 2003 excavations are broadly comparable with those carried out in 2000 by Ken Hanley. A thirteenth to fourteenth century date was proposed for the skeletons in the southern part of the Lane and from the area adjacent to the present day entrance to the churchyard. A stone surface was also detected in 2000, which the excavator assigned to the sixteenth century. No street surfaces of any great antiquity were detected in the 2003 excavations. The excavations in 2000 also appear to have revealed the remains of a possible enclosure ditch, tentatively associated with St Mary’s Church. Such a ditch and the presence of skeletons outside of the existing Church boundary walls argues for a re-design of the church yard boundary and the surrounding streetscape at some point after the thirteenth – fourteenth centuries. Such fluidity in the street pattern is to be expected during the late medieval period, particularly so in relation to lanes off High Street.

The lack of significant ground cover over the human remains revealed in St Mary’s Lane is quite remarkable. In some cases only 300-400mm of overburden covered the skulls of burials. This may suggest that the overlying deposits were partly removed in antiquity. Alternatively, the Lane remained as a street surface with little build up of overburden.

The pottery recovered from the inhumations suggests that the earliest groups of burials from phases Ia and Ib may date from the early-to-mid thirteenth century. This statement is based on the presence of sherds of local pottery stratified with sherds of Minety ceramics. Such local wares can be generally assigned to the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, however a single sherd of Minety pottery, which was traded to Ireland during the late twelfth to early thirteenth centuries, was found stratified in C4 and narrows the date range of this context somewhat. The predominance of locally produced wares over imported wares from the 2003 excavations is in keeping with the known pattern of other excavated sites in Kilkenny City. This may be due to Kilkenny’s inland nature, albeit with some traffic using the Nore, or alternatively it may indicate the early establishment of a competent local pottery industry (See Appendix B).

Given the nature of the investigations only a small area of ground was available for archaeological examination. As a result the skeletal remains uncovered represent a very small sample of the burials in the cemetery associated with St Mary’s Church. Nonetheless the excavated burials are of note in that there were all recovered from a position located to the north of the church. Traditionally there has been a superstition, or certainly a lack of favour, about burial on the northern side of a church. This may be in part due to the shadow cast by church buildings (Hurley & McCutcheon 1997, 206 citing Johnson 1912, 341-5). The more favoured location for burial in the medieval period was on the south of the church, but particularly inside the church (Rodwell 1989, 157).

While there appeared to be no indication of any marker stones to indicate the location of individual burials, some of the burials were associated with stone clusters. In particular, the head of Burial 3 rested on a group of small sized stones. It is likely that these stones were deliberately placed in this location to act as a prop for the head. Other than this no trace of pillow stones, or ear muffs, known from elsewhere in the burial record in Ireland (Hurley & Sheehan 1995, 62) were encountered. No grave goods or artefacts deliberately deposited with the burials were recovered. Objects occasionally found in burials of this period would include shroud pins or nails from coffins. The absence of nails need not always mean a coffin was not used as good carpentry can reduce the need for nails (ibid., 59). However, in the case of the St Mary’s Lane burials there was no indication, such as nails, preserved timber, prominent grave cuts that might indicate the presence of coffins.

Acknowledgements
The writer is grateful to Bord Gaís Eireann for the opportunity to monitor the excavation of the pipe trench and in particular to the BGE Resident Engineer Mr Tony Kyne. During the course of this work a team of archaeologists comprising Adam Slater, Vicki Herring, Tara Doyle, Brenda O’Meara, Graeme Laidlaw and Miriam McDermott assisted the writer. The inked plans are the work of Vicki Herring and the background mapping is by Liam Murphy. The writer would also like to thank Nessa Walsh and Margaret Gowen of Margaret Gowen and Co. Ltd., Edward Bourke of the Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government, as well as the specialists who contributed to this report.

Hanley, K. (2002) ‘St Mary’s Lane, Kilkenny’, in Bennett, I. (ed) Excavations 2000: Summary Accounts of Archaeological Excavations in Ireland, Bray

Hurley, M.F. and McCutcheon, S.W.J. (1997) ‘St Peter’s church and graveyard’ in M.F. Hurley & O.M.B. Scully, Late Viking age and medieval Waterford: Excavations 1986-1992, Waterford, 190-227.

Hurley, M.F. & Sheehan, C.M. (1995) Excavations at the Dominican Priory, St Mary’s of the Isle, Cork, Cork.

Johnson, W. (1912). Byways in British Archaeology, Cambridge

Liber Primus Kilkenniensis, ed. C. McNeill, (1931) Dublin; translated A.J. Otway-Ruthven, Kilkenny 1961

Rodwell, K.A. (1989) Church Archaeology, London

The human remains from St Mary’s Lane consisted of twelve burials. Due to the nature of the excavation, most skeletons were only partially excavated, as they lay to some extent outside the excavation area (Table 2). Five skeletons were adults, whereas seven were juvenile. Bones deriving from post-inhumation disturbance were frequently found in the assemblage. These bones – human and animal – have not been listed, and are not included in the analysis. Greater detail on the human remains can be found in the excavation archive.

As comparative sites the St Peter’s Church in Waterford, and the abbey of St Thomas the Martyr in Dublin were used. The Waterford site yielded 285 skeletons, of which 211 derived from the medieval period (mid-thirteenth – sixteenth/early seventeenth centuries). As the entire cemetery was excavated, this gives us a good sample for a city parish (Power 1997). The cemetery of St Thomas’s abbey in Dublin dates from the late thirteenth –early fourteenth centuries. The individuals buried there are believed to derive from wealthy backgrounds, who were interred at the abbey, and therefore do not represent an average city parish. Eighteen burials were excavated: eight males, six females and four juveniles (Buckley 2003).

Age distribution
Four juveniles could be aged using tooth eruption (B2, B3, B4, B9). Of the remaining three, two individuals were younger than 15, and had not reached puberty yet, as both their femora and pelves were unfused. One individual only consisted of leg bones, and was estimated to be younger than 15, as the femur was unfused. Using measurements of the bones, and comparing them with measurements from the four children of known age, they could be aged more accurately. B1 was estimated to be c.13-15 years old at death, B7 to be between 10 and 15, and B11 to be c.10-13 years old at death. Three age groups can be discerned: 6-10, 10-13, and 13-15 (Figure 3). While no certain cause of death can be found, it is highly likely that diseases played a big part.

Most of the four juveniles at St Thomas’s Abbey, died at a younger age than the Kilkenny ones, centering around the 3-8 year age bracket, with one individual dying at the age of 10-12 (Buckley 2003, 99) (Figure 4). In Waterford, the majority of juvenile deaths occurred at 0-5 years of age, reflecting poor resistance to diseases and inadequate weaning diet. The death rate was rather high in the following age group, 6-10 years. These deaths are likely due to diseases (Power 1997, 768).

Figure 3 Age distribution of juveniles in St Mary’s Lane, Kilkenny.

Figure 4 Age distribution of juveniles in the abbey of St Thomas the Martyr, Dublin.

The distribution of adult ages in St Mary’s Lane is given in Table 3. The concentration of deaths in the young and middle adult age ranges may be explained either by the small sample not being representative of the whole population, or by a high frequency of diseases in the region. Combined with poor hygiene and/or poor diet as well as lack of modern medicine, disease could have killed many adults, thus decreasing the amount of people living to old age. What speaks against this, is that the elderly and the juveniles are the groups most likely to die of disease due to poor resistance.

The age distribution of the adult remains from St Thomas’s abbey show a pronounced peak at the middle adult age range (Table 3). This distribution is not surprising, as this is a much wider age range than the young adult age range. As the Waterford individuals were aged much closer than the Kilkenny ones (Figure 5), a comparison between the two sites is somewhat difficult to make. One notable difference is the age of death of juveniles. The majority of the juvenile deaths in Waterford occur between 0-10 years of age, whereas in Kilkenny it is between 10-20 years of age. This is likely to reflect the small size of the Kilkenny sample, as most known larger cemetery sites from the middle ages display a high mortality for the very young. For adults, there are also differences in the average age of death, but not so noticeable as for the juveniles. Due to the small Kilkenny sample, little can be discussed on this topic.

Figure 5. Age distribution of juveniles and adults in St Peter’s Waterford.

Sex distribution
A majority of the adult skeletons were male (Table 4). As the sample is small, it is not likely that it represents the actual sexual distribution in medieval Kilkenny. Using St Peter’s in Waterford as a comparison, where an entire cemetery was excavated, women were more common than men (Table 4). This might initially seem to reflect the high mortality rate of the 30-39s, and thus be due to childbirth related deaths. However, the high ratios of female deaths occur at both 30-39 and 40-49 years of age, whereas men peak at 30-39. We must therefore look for other factors for understanding the high rate of females in the Waterford cemetery.

Stature
Stature could be estimated for four individuals (Table 5), using formulae from Trotter & Gleser (1958). They are all within the range of stature in both Waterford and St Thomas’s abbey. Due to the small nature of the sample, little can be discussed.

Dental afflictions
Calculus is a deposit of mineralised plaque, which is attached to the surface of the teeth. It is caused by consumption of soft food in combination with lack of tooth brushing. Calculus was the most common of all pathological conditions in the sample. All individuals with observable dentition were afflicted by calculus (Table 6). Most calculus deposits were of a slight to medium nature (see Brothwell 1981, 155). There may however have been a higher rate of calculus in the population, as it may unintentionally be removed during post-excavation washing. Individuals of all age groups seem to be equally afflicted by calculus. This likely reflects a similar diet and oral hygiene among the population – barring the very old and very young, as these are not represented in the sample. The high prevalence of calculus is common in most of Medieval Europe. In St Thomas’s abbey 67% of the individuals with observable dentition had calculus in varying amounts, mostly slight to medium nature (Buckley 2003, 101f), and in Waterford, the corresponding amount was 59% (Power 1997, 804).

Caries only occurred on two individuals: burial 2 and burial 6. Burial 2 had holes anteriorly on both deciduous molars in the mandible. Burial 6 had caries posteriorly and anteriorly on one maxillary second molar. There was also the probable remains of a severe caries on the right first molar in the mandibula. Only two hollowed roots remained of the first molar and the neighbouring premolar, and there was an abscess below the molar. Caries is not very common during the Middle Ages. In St Thomas’s abbey 7% of the teeth were affected (Buckley 2003,102), and in Waterford 4%. In several Medieval populations in Denmark, the average percentage of caries affected teeth were 3.7% (Power 1997,806). Despite the small sample from Kilkenny, 2 % is not out of the ordinary.

Ante-mortem tooth loss occurred on burial 5 and burial 6. Burial 5 had lost the left maxillary second molar, and maybe also the left maxillary first molar. The first molar may have been lost not long before death, as the alveolus was still open. There was an opening into the maxillary sinus, which seems to be the result of an infection. A similar infection was found on the opposite side (see below). Burial 6 had lost three teeth during life – both maxillary first molars, and the left mandibular first molar. It is not known whether these teeth were lost due to caries, periodontal disease or attrition. Ante-mortem tooth loss is fairly common in Medieval populations, especially among the older individuals. The average percentage of ante-mortem tooth loss in Waterford was 50 %, which can be compared to percentages from several sites in Viking Age and Medieval Denmark (38.9% and 26.1% respectively) (Power 1997, 808), and St Thomas’s abbey (18%) (Buckley 2003,101).

Abscesses are a result of a pus-forming infection within the bone. After a while, the bone will become more and more necrotic, and eventually a drainage hole may erupt. An abscess was found in burial 6, where severe caries had almost obliterated a first mandibular molar. Only one root remained. Just below the lost root, a drainage hole was located. Burial 5 displayed an infection in the right maxillary sinus, above the first molar, forming a balloon-like pus-filled cavity. The tooth is very worn, with exposed pulp cavity, which has likely been the origin of the infection.

Enamel hypoplasia is a sign of nutritional stress which has occurred during the tooth development stage, causing a temporary halt of the enamel production. This is visible as a line in the enamel. Two individuals displayed enamel hypoplasia: burial 2 and burial 12. Burial 2 had enamel hypoplasia in all four first molars. The line in the maxillary molars were however weaker than the mandibular ones. The hypoplasias would have been formed at c.2 years of age. In burial 12, nine teeth were affected: both lower first molars, left lower canine, upper left and right canines, and all upper incisors. Most lines were pronounced. The hypoplasias would have been formed around 1.5-3 years of age. As there is some variation in which months teeth erupt (see Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994,51), this may be interpreted as all hypoplasias of burial 12 occurred at one time, at c.2 years of age. In Waterford, 68.4% of the population had enamel hypoplasia, and in St Thomas’ abbey, 50% were afflicted (Power 1997,810; Buckley 2003,104). Almost all hypoplasias in Waterford occurred between birth and 6-7 years of age. There is a minor peak in the 5-6 year age group, with smaller peaks in the 4-5 year and the 2-4 year age groups. (Power 1997,104f). Most of the hypoplasias in St Thomas’s abbey occurred between 3-5 years of age. In two individuals they occurred before 2 years of age (Buckley 2003,104). Whether these hypoplasias were due to diseases, temporary malnutrition or weaning, is difficult to say. A larger sample is needed, preferably combined with good written sources and good bio-archaeological material.

Cribra orbitalia
Cribra orbitalia is a condition characterised by pitting of the upper part of the orbitae. It is usually attributed to iron-deficiency anemia. The anemia can be due to lack of enough iron in the diet, or due to difficulties in absorbing iron. The affliction is usually more common among juveniles than adults. Cribra orbitalia was found in three individuals (B1, B2, B4). It was absent in two individuals (B3, B5), and could not be observed in the remaining seven.

In St Thomas's abbey, 13% of the individuals suffered from cribra orbitalia. This is considered to be a low number, reflecting the good health status of the interred. Buckley compares this with Francis Street, Dublin and a Dominican priory in Drogheda, where the percentage were 25% and 18% respectively (Buckley 2003, 103). In Waterford, 29 individuals were afflicted with cribra orbitalia. It is not noted, however, how many individuals did not have cribra, nor in how many individuals the affliction could not be observed.

Non-specific infection
Inflammation usually occurs in soft tissues, but may leave traces in bone as well. This is usually seen as extra bone growth on the surface of the bone. Swelling may also occur. There are three kinds of inflammations, depending on where the inflammation originates. Periostitis originates in the periosteum – the soft tissue surrounding the bone – and is usually caused by trauma or infection. Osteitis occurs when it is the bone that is afflicted by an infection. Osteomyelitis is caused by an infection in the marrow cavity. As inflammations often migrate into other parts, it can be very difficult to specify what kind of infection was present.

Non-specific infections occurred on three skeletons. Burial 1 suffered from severe pathological bone growth on the right tibia. Some bone growth was noticeable on the left tibia. There was also some interior growth of porous bone in the anterior left tibia shaft. Several bones on burial 5 displayed woven bone growth, which may be indicative of periostitis. This was found on the left and right distal femur, on both tibia shafts, and on the right humerus. The humerus was affected distally, on the deltoid tuberosity, and on the crest of the lesser tubercle. Some bone growth was also found on the pelves, at the arctuate line, but it is uncertain whether this is pathological or a sign of enthesophytes (see below). The right distal ulna of burial 8 displayed pathological bone growth both on the external and internal bone surface. Despite the infection starting at the distal end of the ulna, the carpals were unaffected. It cannot be determined whether the infection started in the marrow cavity or on the surface of the bone.

Degenerative joint disease
Degenerative joint disease is a common name for degenerative changes at the joints. The causes are commonly considered to be related to ‘wear and tear’ as well as the ageing process. Burial 5 is the only individual in the assemblage that is afflicted. His rib joints display intensive pitting and moderate osteophytes. The vertebral bodies show slight to moderate marginal osteophytes (C2-5, T3, T5, T(indet), and L2-4). None have fused. The moderate osteophytes are concentrated to the lumbar vertebrae, and also occur on the indeterminable thoracic vertebra. Pit/furrows on the vertebral bodies, similar to Schmorl’s nodes, are found on T5-6, on two indeterminable thoracic vertebrae, and on L1. Some vertebral bodies show intensive pitting (C2/3, C4/5, L1/2, L2/3, and L3/4). It is rather localised in the cervical vertebrae, as only the joints between C2 and C3, and between C4 and C5 are affected. One would think that the degeneration would not skip one vertebral joint, when the neighbouring ones show such intensive pitting. Perhaps the pitting in the cervical vertebrae is not related to normal degeneration, but has other causes. There are also some pitting and exostosis on the proximal humerus, around the caput, which may be indicative of degenerating joint disease.

Bone destroying activity
In two individuals, localised bone destroying activity was found on the internal vault of the skull. On the superior part of the occipital bone of burial 4, superficial scoring with a vein-like pattern was found. It has been suggested that this may be a sign of meningitis or similar diseases (Bennike personal communication). As meningitis may lead to death very quickly, the traces in the vault of the skull would in that case be a sign of a minor form of the disease.

Burial 3 displayed small pits on the frontal bone. It is uncertain whether these reflect pathological conditions or are normal variations.

Trauma
Evidence of trauma was found on one skeleton, burial 5, who had six broken ribs on his right side, all approximately at the posterior third. They were all healed, indicating that the fractures had occurred some time – perhaps several years - before death. Another rib on the same side has an exostosis – a bony spur – at the angle, which is likely related to the injury. According to Wells (1982), "[I]n anterior-posterior crushing injuries or in accidental falls forward onto the chest, there is a tendency for the ribs to snap at the angle or in their posterior third. With direct blows to the chest wall, the fracture is more likely to occur in the middle or anterior part of the rib." (Arnold 1995, 73f).

Enthesophytes
Over-development of muscles in some individuals may lead to ossification of tendons and ligaments, called enthesophytes. Their location on the body, as well as their size, may give an indication of habitual activities involving specific muscles. Enthesophytes are very common on burial 5, and are found on the right radius, ulna, both femora, tibiae, fibulae, the right metatarsal 1 and corresponding first phalanx. They are not extremely pronounced, and probably indicate a 'normal' heavy workload, involving most of the body.

Brothwell, D.H. (1981) Digging up bones. Cornell University Press; Ithaca, New York.

Buckley, L. (2003) ‘Health status in medieval Dublin: analysis of the skeletal remains from the abbey of St Thomas the Martyr’, In Duffy, S. (ed). Medieval Dublin IV. Proceedings of the Friends of Medieval Dublin Symposium 2002, Dublin, 98-126.

Power, C. (1997) ‘Human skeletal remains’, In Hurley, M.F. & Scully, O.M.B. Late Viking Age and Medieval Waterford. Excavations 1986-1992. Waterford Corporation; Waterford, 762-817.

Trotter, M. & Gleser, G.C. (1958) ‘A re-evaluation of estimation of stature based on measurements of stature taken during life and of long bones after death’, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 16, 79-123.

Wells, C. (1982) ‘The human burials’, In McWhirr, A., Vine, L. & Wells, C. Roman-British cemeteries at Cirencester. Cirencestre excavations II, 135-172.

Introduction
A total of 55 sherds of pottery and one ridge tile sherd were recovered from the site. Following some reassembly this was reduced to 50 sherds of which 47 (94%) are medieval in date. The assemblage as a whole appears to date to the second half of the thirteenth century. This suggested dating is based on the presence of single sherds of Minety-type and Ham Green B ware along with a few sherds of possible Redcliffe ware, giving an overlap date around the middle of the thirteenth century. The quantities of Kilkenny-type ware explains the lack of contemporary Bristol wares and indicates a fairly self-sufficient production of pottery locally. In this, Kilkenny would appear to be closer to the Dublin experience than to that at Waterford or Cork for example, where the ease of access into those two ports may have precluded the development of a local production in the early thirteenth century. In both cities therefore, the relative percentages of locally made ware varies between only 10-20% whereas at Dublin, it may reach as much as 65-85% (McCutcheon in prep; 1995, table 1). Comparative evidence from other excavated sites in Kilkenny city is particularly useful. The pottery recovered from excavations at 33 Patrick Street, Kilkenny, found that local wares represented almost 94% while the figure at 29-33 Patrick Street was 92% (McCutcheon forthcoming (a & b)). It is also worth noting the complete absence of any French wares, and while this may be due to the location or small size of the assemblage, such wares only represented 2.09% of the total at 29-33 Patrick Street, Kilkenny (McCutcheon forthcoming (b)).

The fabrics were identified visually and the information is presented in Table 7. The number of sherds in each fabric type is listed along with the minimum vessels represented (MVR). No minimum number of vessels (MNV) could be given as this is an objective number based on rim/handle sherds in the case of jugs, and complete rims in the case of flat wares and cooking pots.

Ham Green B
This is a hand built ware from Bristol which has been extensively described (Barton 1963) and dates to the early twelfth to the mid-thirteenth centuries (Ponsford 1991, 98). The ware is found widely in Ireland, particularly in the Waterford city excavations where it accounts for some 46% of the medieval material (Gahan & McCutcheon 1997, table 11.1). A single undecorated body sherd from a jug was found.

Minety-type
A single sherd of Minety-type ware was also recovered. This ware appears to originate in the Minety area of North Wiltshire and was traded to Ireland in the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries (Vince 1988; Gahan and McCutcheon 1997). The fabric is dark grey, pitted with holes as a result of the limestone content, which burnt out on firing. The glaze is thin pale green and the sherd was decorated with combing.

Redcliffe?
Seven body sherds of possible Bristol Redcliffe ware were recovered. Many of the indicators of this ware are present i.e. rapid firing leaving a distinctive dark grey core and a light grey margin and decoration by the application of contrasting clay, appearing brown metallic on firing. The fabric, however is not so typically sandy and the interior surface is red rather than cream coloured. At Kells Priory, Co. Kilkenny, a similar blurring of the identification was noted with some pieces identified as Redcliffe and some as Kilkenny-type G/Redcliffe? (McCutcheon in press). Either way, the decoration is very characteristic of Redcliffe ware and so the later thirteenth century has been suggested for the assemblage.

Redcliffe is a wheel-thrown ware that superseded the earlier Ham Green B ware from Bristol and dates to the mid-thirteenth to fourteenth centuries (Ponsford 1991, 95). It is found widely in Ireland, particularly in the southern port cities of Waterford and Cork (Gahan & McCutcheon 1997, 301-3; McCutcheon 1997, table 3).

Kilkenny-type wares
The use of the suffix -type is recommended in pottery studies to indicate that while a fabric has been found regularly in a particular area, as yet no production site has been located (Blake & Davey 1983, 39-40). The terminology used below reflects that adopted for the Dublin wares, and aims to avoid any chronological implications (McCutcheon in prep). This follows the practice in London where the ceramic specialists selected the broader terms of Coarse London-type ware, London-type ware and Late London-type ware (Pearce et al 1985, 2). The process of regrouping in London is described thus: "The terminology is adopted here, since it conveniently brings together pottery types whose similarities in fabric and methods of manufacture suggest either a single source, or group of sources sharing a potting tradition" (ibid). In the excavations at Kells Priory, the thin-section report describes a number of different medieval fabrics (McCorry in press) and these were described as Kells-type A-G (McCutcheon in press). The consistency in manufacture, forms and decorations, however, make these a closely linked group and they may more usefully be described within this system. If and when kilns are found, it may be possible to identify particular fabrics although the experience in Britain, where a number of kilns have been excavated, is not encouraging. "In areas where the underlying geology is bland, pottery from widely separated sources can have a very similar appearance, while excavations at kilns sites of all dates have shown that a wide variation in colour, texture and inclusions can be expected within the products of a single source" (Vince 1987, 203).

Kilkenny-type
The majority of the medieval ware recovered on site was of a local wheel-thrown fabric. None of the earlier coarse ware or later fine ware were present in this assemblage. The fabrics range from lightly micaceous, hard fired finish to a more calcareous, softer finished fabric. A complete jug was found at Castleinch, about two miles south-west of Kilkenny city (Prendergast 1977) and the principal glazed ware recovered at Kilkenny Castle has been described as Castleinch ware (B. Murtagh personal communication). Similar material, also described as Kilkenny-type ware, has been recovered at recent excavations at 29-33 and 33 Patrick Street (McCutcheon forthcoming (a & b)).

Kilkenny-type cooking ware
A small quantity of sherds have been provisionally identified as Kilkenny-type cooking ware. They are undiagnostic body sherds although similar pieces from Kilkenny excavations have been in the form of medieval cooking pots with everted rims, ovoid bodies and slightly sagging bases.

Blake, H. & Davey, P. (eds) (1983) Guidelines for the processing and publication of medieval pottery from excavations. London.

Gahan, A. & McCutcheon, C. (1997) ‘Medieval pottery’ in M.F. Hurley & O.M.B. Scully, Late Viking age and medieval Waterford: Excavations 1986-1992. 285-336. Waterford.

McCorry, M. in press 'Thin-section report' in C. McCutcheon, 'The medieval pottery' in M. Clyne, Excavations by Thomas Fanning at Kells Priory, County Kilkenny, 1975 .

McCutcheon, C. (1995) 'The medieval pottery' in L. Simpson, Excavations at Essex Street West, Dublin. 40-53. Dublin.

McCutcheon, C. (1997) ‘Pottery and roof tiles’ in M.F. Hurley, Excavations at the North Gate, Cork, 1994. 75-101. Cork.

McCutcheon, C. in press 'The medieval pottery' in M. Clyne, Excavations by Thomas Fanning at Kells Priory, County Kilkenny.

McCutcheon, C. forthcoming (a) 'The pottery' in J. Carroll, Excavations at 33 Patrick Street, Kilkenny.

McCutcheon, C. forthcoming (b) 'The pottery' in J. Carroll, Excavations at 29-33 Patrick Street, Kilkenny.

McCutcheon, C. in preparation The medieval pottery from the waterfront excavations at Wood Quay, Dublin.

Pearce, J.E., Vince, A.G. & Jenner, M.A. (1985) A dated type-series of London medieval pottery part 2: London-type ware. London.

Ponsford, M. (1991) ‘Dendrochronological dates from Dundas Wharf, Bristol and the dating of Ham Green and other medieval pottery’ in E. Lewis (ed), Custom and ceramics. 81-103. Wickham.

Prendergast, E. (1977) 'Medieval jug from Castleinch' Old Kilkenny Review 1:4, 238-44.

Vince, A.G. (1987) 'The study of pottery from urban excavations' in J. Schofield & R. Leech (eds), Urban archaeology in Britain. CBA Research report 61, 201-13.

Vince, A.G. (1988) ‘Early medieval English pottery in Viking Dublin’, in G. Mac Niocaill and P.F. Wallace (eds), Keimelia: studies in medieval archaeology and history in memory of Tom Delaney. 254-70. Galway.